# Auxiliary-Field Quantum Monte Carlo¶

The AFQMC method is an orbital-space formulation of the imaginary-time propagation algorithm. We refer the reader to one of the review articles on the method [PZ04, Zha13, ZK03] for a detailed description of the algorithm. It uses the Hubbard-Stratonovich transformation to express the imaginary-time propagator, which is inherently a 2-body operator, as an integral over 1-body propagators, which can be efficiently applied to an arbitrary Slater determinant. This transformation allows us to represent the interacting many-body system as an average over a noninteracting system (e.g., Slater determinants) in a time-dependent fluctuating external field (the Auxiliary fields). The walkers in this case represent nonorthogonal Slater determinants, whose time average represents the desired quantum state. QMCPACK currently implements the phaseless AFQMC algorithm of Zhang and Krakauer [ZK03], where a trial wavefunction is used to project the simulation to the real axis, controlling the fermionic sign problem at the expense of a bias. This approximation is similar in spirit to the fixed-node approximation in real-space DMC but applied in the Hilbert space where the AFQMC random walk occurs.

## Input¶

The input for an AFQMC calculation is fundamentally different to the input for other real-space algorithms in QMCPACK. The main source of input comes from the Hamiltonian matrix elements in an appropriate single particle basis. This must be evaluated by an external code and saved in a format that QMCPACK can read. More details about file formats follow. The input file has six basic xml-blocks: AFQMCInfo, Hamiltonian, Wavefunction, WalkerSet, Propagator, and execute. The first five define input structures required for various types of calculations. The execute block represents actual calculations and takes as input the other blocks. Nonexecution blocks are parsed first, followed by a second pass where execution blocks are parsed (and executed) in order. Listing 51 shows an example of a minimal input file for an AFQMC calculation. Table 17 shows a brief description of the most important parameters in the calculation. All xml sections contain a “name” argument used to identify the resulting object within QMCPACK. For example, in the example, multiple Hamiltonian objects with different names can be defined. The one actually used in the calculation is the one passed to “execute” as ham.

Listing 60 Sample input file for AFQMC.
<?xml version="1.0"?>
<simulation method="afqmc">
<project id="Carbon" series="0"/>

<AFQMCInfo name="info0">
<parameter name="NMO">32</parameter>
<parameter name="NAEA">16</parameter>
<parameter name="NAEB">16</parameter>
</AFQMCInfo>

<Hamiltonian name="ham0" info="info0">
<parameter name="filename">fcidump.h5</parameter>
</Hamiltonian>

<Wavefunction name="wfn0" type="MSD" info="info0">
<parameter name="filetype">hdf5</parameter>
<parameter name="filename">wfn.h5</parameter>
</Wavefunction>

<WalkerSet name="wset0">
<parameter name="walker_type">closed</parameter>
</WalkerSet>

<Propagator name="prop0" info="info0">
</Propagator>

<execute wset="wset0" ham="ham0" wfn="wfn0" prop="prop0" info="info0">
<parameter name="timestep">0.005</parameter>
<parameter name="blocks">10000</parameter>
<parameter name="nWalkers">20</parameter>
<Estimator name="back_propagation">
<parameter name="naverages">4</parameter>
<parameter name="nsteps">400</parameter>
<parameter name="path_restoration">true</parameter>
<onerdm/>
<diag2rdm/>
<twordm/>
<ontop2rdm/>
<realspace_correlators/>
<correlators/>
<genfock/>
</Estimator>
</execute>

</simulation>


The following list includes all input sections for AFQMC calculations, along with a detailed explanation of accepted parameters. Since the code is under active development, the list of parameters and their interpretation might change in the future.

AFQMCInfo: Input block that defines basic information about the calculation. It is passed to all other input blocks to propagate the basic information: <AFQMCInfo name="info0">

• NMO. Number of molecular orbitals, i.e., number of states in the single particle basis.

• NAEA. Number of active electrons-alpha, i.e., number of spin-up electrons.

• NAEB. Number of active electrons-beta, i.e., number of spin-down electrons.

Hamiltonian: Controls the object that reads, stores, and manages the hamiltonian. <Hamiltonian name="ham0" type="SparseGeneral" info="info0">

• filename. Name of file with the Hamiltonian. This is a required parameter.

• cutoff_1bar. Cutoff applied to integrals during reading. Any term in the Hamiltonian smaller than this value is set to zero. (For filetype=“hdf5”, the cutoff is applied only to the 2-electron integrals). Default: 1e-8

• cutoff_decomposition. Cutoff used to stop the iterative cycle in the generation of the Cholesky decomposition of the 2-electron integrals. The generation of Cholesky vectors is stopped when the maximum error in the diagonal reaches this value. In case of an eigenvalue factorization, this becomes the cutoff applied to the eigenvalues. Only eigenvalues above this value are kept. Default: 1e-6

• nblocks. This parameter controls the distribution of the 2-electron integrals among processors. In the default behavior (nblocks=1), all nodes contain the entire list of integrals. If nblocks $$>$$ 1, the of nodes in the calculation will be split in nblocks groups. Each node in a given group contains the same subset of integrals and subsequently operates on this subset during any further operation that requires the hamiltonian. The maximum number of groups is NMO. Currently only works for filetype=“hdf5” and the file must contain integrals. Not yet implemented for input hamiltonians in the form of Cholesky vectors or for ASCII input. Coming soon! Default: No distribution

• printEig. If “yes”, prints additional information during the Cholesky decomposition. Default: no

• fix_2eint. If this is set to “yes”, orbital pairs that are found not to be positive definite are ignored in the generation of the Cholesky factorization. This is necessary if the 2-electron integrals are not positive definite because of round-off errors in their generation. Default: no

Wavefunction: controls the object that manages the trial wavefunctions. This block expects a list of xml-blocks defining actual trial wavefunctions for various roles. <Wavefunction name="wfn0" type="MSD/PHMSD" info="info0">

• filename. Name of file with wavefunction information.

• cutoff. cutoff applied to the terms in the calculation of the local energy. Only terms in the Hamiltonian above this cutoff are included in the evaluation of the energy. Default: 1e-6

• nnodes. Defines the parallelization of the local energy evaluation and the distribution of the Hamiltonian matrix (not to GPU)

• nbatch_qr. This turns on(>=1)/off(==0) batched QR calculation. -1 means all the walkers in the batch. Default: 0 (CPU) / -1 (GPU)

WalkerSet: Controls the object that handles the set of walkers. <WalkerSet name="wset0">

• walker_type. Type of walker set: closed or collinear. Default: collinear

• pop_control. Population control algorithm. Options: “simple”: Uses a simple branching scheme with a fluctuating population. Walkers with weight above max_weight are split into multiple walkers of weight reset_weight. Walkers with weight below min_weight are killed with probability (weight/min_weight); “pair”: Fixed-population branching algorithm, based on QWalk’s branching algorithm. Pairs of walkers with weight above/below max_weight/min_weight are combined into 2 walkers with weights equal to $$(w_1+w_2)/2$$. The probability of replicating walker w1 (larger weight) occurs with probability $$w_1/(w_1+w_2)$$, otherwise walker w2 (lower weight) is replicated; “comb”: Fixed-population branching algorithm based on the Comb method. Will be available in the next release. Default: “pair”

• min_weight. Weight at which walkers are possibly killed (with probability weight/min_weight). Default: 0.05

• max_weight. Weight at which walkers are replicated. Default: 4.0

• reset_weight. Weight to which replicated walkers are reset to. Default: 1.0

Propagator: Controls the object that manages the propagators. <Propagator name="prop0" info="info0">

• cutoff. Cutoff applied to Cholesky vectors. Elements of the Cholesky vectors below this value are set to zero. Only meaningful with sparse hamiltonians. Default: 1e-6

• substractMF. If “yes”, apply mean-field subtraction based on the ImpSamp trial wavefunction. Must set to “no” to turn it off. Default: yes

• vbias_bound. Upper bound applied to the vias potential. Components of the vias potential above this value are truncated there. The bound is currently applied to $$\sqrt{\tau} v_{bias}$$, so a larger value must be used as either the time step or the fluctuations increase (e.g. from running a larger system or using a poor trial wavefunction). Default: 3.0

• apply_constrain. If “yes”, apply the phaseless constrain to the walker propagation. Currently, setting this to “no” produces unknown behavior, since free propagation algorithm has not been tested. Default: yes

• hybrid. If “yes”, use hybrid propagation algorithm. This propagation scheme doesn’t use the local energy during propagation, leading to significant speed ups when its evaluation cost is high. The local energy of the ImpSamp trial wavefunction is never evaluated. To obtain energy estimates in this case, you must define an Estimator xml-block with the Wavefunction block. The local energy of this trial wavefunction is evaluated and printed. It is possible to use a previously defined trial wavefunction in the Estimator block, just set its “name” argument to the name of a previously defined wavefunction. In this case, the same object is used for both roles. Default: no

• nnodes. Controls the parallel propagation algorithm. If nnodes $$>$$ 1, the nodes in the simulation are split into groups of nnodes nodes, each group working collectively to propagate their walkers. Default: 1 (Serial algorithm)

• nbatch. This turns on(>=1)/off(==0) batched calculation of density matrices and overlaps. -1 means all the walkers in the batch. Default: 0 (CPU) / -1 (GPU)

• nbatch_qr. This turns on(>=1)/off(==0) batched QR calculation. -1 means all the walkers in the batch. Default: 0 (CPU) / -1 (GPU)

execute: Defines an execution region. <execute wset="wset0" ham="ham0" wfn="wfn0" prop="prop0" info="info0">

• nWalkers. Initial number of walkers per core group (see ncores). This sets the number of walkers for a given group of “ncores” on a node; the total number of walkers in the simulation depends on the total number of nodes and on the total number of cores on a node in the following way: $$\#_walkers_total = nWalkers * \#_nodes * \#_cores_total / ncores$$. Default: 5

• timestep. Time step in 1/a.u. Default: 0.01

• blocks. Number of blocks. Slow operations occur once per block (e.g., write to file, slow observables, checkpoints), Default: 100

• step. Number of steps within a block. Operations that occur at the step level include load balance, orthogonalization, branching, etc. Default: 1

• substep. Number of substeps within a step. Only walker propagation occurs in a substep. Default: 1

• ortho. Number of steps between orthogonalization. Default: 1

• ncores. Number of nodes in a task group. This number defines the number of cores on a node that share the parallel work associated with a distributed task. This number is used in the Wavefunction and Propagator task groups. The walker sets are shares by the ncores on a given node in the task group.

• checkpoint. Number of blocks between checkpoint files are generated. If a value smaller than 1 is given, no file is generated. If hdf_write_file is not set, a default name is used. Default: 0

• hdf_write_file. If set (and checkpoint>0), a checkpoint file with this name will be written.

• hdf_read_file. If set, the simulation will be restarted from the given file.

Within the Estimators xml block has an argument name: the type of estimator we want to measure. Currently available estimators include: “basic”, “energy”, “mixed_one_rdm”, and “back_propagation”.

The basic estimator has the following optional parameters:

• timers. print timing information. Default: true

The back_propagation estimator has the following parameters:

• ortho. Number of back-propagation steps between orthogonalization. Default: 10

• nsteps. Maximum number of back-propagation steps. Default: 10

• naverages. Number of back propagation calculations to perform. The number of steps will be chosed equally distributed in the range 0,nsteps. Default: 1

• block_size. Number of blocks to use in the internal average of the back propagated estimator. This is used to block data and reduce the size of the output. Default: 1

• nskip. Number of blocks to skip at the start of the calculation for equilibration purposes. Default: 0

• path_restoration. Use full path restoration. Can result in better back propagated results. Default false.

The following observables can be computed with the back_propagated estimator

• onerdm. One-particle reduced density matrix.

• twordm. Full Two-particle reduced density matrix.

• diag2rdm. Diagonal part of the two-particle reduced density matrix.

• ontop2rdm. On top two-particle reduced density matrix.

• realspace_correlators. Charge-Charge, and spin-spin correlation functions in real space.

• correlators. Charge-Charge, and spin-spin correlation functions in real space centered about atomic sites.

• genfock. Generalized Fock matrix.

Real space correlation functions require a real space grid. Details coming soon..

## Hamiltonian File formats¶

QMCPACK offers three factorization approaches which are appropriate in different settings. The most generic approach implemented is based on the modified-Cholesky factorization of the ERI tensor:

(64)$v_{pqrs} = V_{(pr),(sq)} \approx \sum_n^{N_\mathrm{chol}} L_{pr,n} L^{*}_{sq,n},$

where the sum is truncated at $$N_{\mathrm{chol}} = x_c M$$, $$x_c$$ is typically between $$5$$ and $$10$$, $$M$$ is the number of basis functions and we have assumed that the single-particle orbitals are in general complex. The storage requirement is thus naively $$\mathcal{O}(M^3)$$. Note we follow the usual definition of $$v_{pqrs} = \langle pq | rs \rangle = (pr|qs)$$. With this form of factorization QMCPACK allows for the integrals to be stored in either dense or sparse format.

The dense case is the simplest and is only implemented for Hamiltonians with real integrals (and basis functions, i.e. not the homegeneous electron gas which has complex orbitals but real integrals). The file format is given as follows:

Listing 61 Sample Dense Cholesky QMCPACK Hamtiltonian.
$h5dump -n afqmc.h5 HDF5 "afqmc.h5" { FILE_CONTENTS { group / group /Hamiltonian group /Hamiltonian/DenseFactorized dataset /Hamiltonian/DenseFactorized/L dataset /Hamiltonian/dims dataset /Hamiltonian/hcore dataset /Hamiltonian/Energies } }  where the datasets are given by the following • /Hamiltonian/DenseFactorized/L Contains the $$[M^2,N_\mathrm{nchol}]$$ dimensional matrix representatation of $$L_{pr,n}$$. • /Hamiltonian/dims Descriptor array of length 8 containing $$[0,0,0,M,N_\alpha,N_\beta,0,N_\mathrm{nchol}]$$. Note that $$N_\alpha$$ and $$N_\beta$$ are somewhat redundant and will be read from the input file and wavefunction. This allows for the Hamiltonian to be used with different (potentially spin polarized) wavefunctions. • /Hamiltonian/hcore Contains the $$[M,M]$$ dimensional one-body Hamiltonian matrix elements $$h_{pq}$$. • /Hamiltonian/Energies Array containing $$[E_{II}, E_{\mathrm{core}}]$$. $$E_{II}$$ should contain ion-ion repulsion energy and any additional constant terms which have to be added to the total energy. $$E_{\mathrm{core}}$$ is deprecated and not used. Typically the Cholesky matrix is sparse, particularly if written in the non-orthogonal AO basis (not currently supported in QMCPACK). In this case only a small number of non-zero elements (denoted $$nnz$$ below) need to be stored which can reduce the memory overhead considerably. Internally QMCPACK stores this matrix in the CSR format, and the HDF5 file format is reflective of this. For large systems and, more generally when running in parallel, it is convenient to chunk the writing/reading of the Cholesky matrix into blocks of size $$[M^2,\frac{N_{\mathrm{chol}}}{N_{\mathrm{blocks}}}]$$ (if interpreted as a dense array). This is achieved by writing these blocks to different data sets in the file. For the sparse case the Hamtiltonian file format is given as follows: Listing 62 Sample Sparse Cholesky QMCPACK Hamtiltonian. $ h5dump -n afqmc.h5
HDF5 "afqmc.h5" {
FILE_CONTENTS {
group      /
group      /Hamiltonian
group      /Hamiltonian/Factorized
dataset    /Hamiltonian/Factorized/block_sizes
dataset    /Hamiltonian/Factorized/index_0
dataset    /Hamiltonian/Factorized/vals_0
dataset    /Hamiltonian/ComplexIntegrals
dataset    /Hamiltonian/dims
dataset    /Hamiltonian/hcore
dataset    /Hamiltonian/Energies
}
}

• /Hamiltonian/Factorized/block_sizes Contains the number of elements in each block of the sparse representation of the Cholesky matrix $$L_{pr,n}$$. In this case there is 1 block.

• /Hamiltonian/Factorized/index_0 $$[2\times nnz]$$ dimensional array, containing the indices of the non-zero values of $$L_{ik,n}$$. The row indices are stored in the even entries, and the column indices in the odd entries.

• /Hamiltonian/Factorized/vals_0 $$[nnz]$$ length array containing non-zero values of $$L_{pr,n}$$ for chunk 0.

• /Hamiltonian/dims Descriptor array of length 8 containing $$[0,nnz,N_{\mathrm{block}},M,N_\alpha,N_\beta,0,N_\mathrm{nchol}]$$.

• /Hamiltonian/ComplexIntegrals Length 1 array that specifies if integrals are complex valued. 1 for complex integrals, 0 for real integrals.

• /Hamiltonian/hcore Contains the $$[M,M]$$ dimensional one-body Hamiltonian matrix elements $$h_{pq}$$. Due to its small size this is written as a dense 2D-array.

• /Hamiltonian/Energies Array containing $$[E_{II}, E_{\mathrm{core}}]$$. $$E_{II}$$ should contain ion-ion repulsion energy and any additional constant terms which have to be added to the total energy. $$E_{\mathrm{core}}$$ is deprecated and not used.

To reduce the memory overhead of storing the three-index tensor we recently adapted the tensor-hypercontraction (THC) approach for use in AFQMCcite{MaloneISDF2019}. Within the THC approach we can approximate the orbital products entering the ERIs as

(65)$\varphi^{*}_p(\mathbf{r})\varphi_r(\mathbf{r}) \approx \sum_\mu^{N_\mu} \zeta_\mu(\mathbf{r}) \varphi^*_p(\mathbf{r}_\mu)\varphi_r(\mathbf{r}_\mu),$

where $$\varphi_p(\mathbf{r})$$ are the one-electron orbitals and $$\mathbf{r}_\mu$$ are a set of specially selected interpolating points, $$\zeta_\mu(\mathbf{r})$$ are a set of interpolating vectors and $$N_\mu = x_\mu M$$. We can then write the ERI tensor as a product of rank-2 tensors

(66)$v_{pqrs} \approx \sum_{\mu\nu} \varphi^{*}_p(\mathbf{r}_\mu)\varphi_r(\mathbf{r}_\mu) M_{\mu\nu} \varphi^{*}_q(\mathbf{r}_\nu)\varphi_s(\mathbf{r}_\nu),$

where

(67)$M_{\mu\nu} = \int d\mathbf{r}d\mathbf{r}' \zeta_\mu(\mathbf{r})\frac{1}{|\mathbf{r}-\mathbf{r}'|}\zeta^{*}_\nu(\mathbf{r}').$

We also require the half-rotated versions of these quantities which live on a different set of $$\tilde{N}_\mu$$ interpolating points $$\tilde{\mathbf{r}}_\mu$$ (see [MZM19]). The file format for THC factorization is as follows:

Listing 63 Sample Sparse Cholesky QMCPACK Hamtiltonian.
$h5dump -n afqmc.h5 HDF5 "afqmc.h5" { FILE_CONTENTS { group / group /Hamiltonian group /Hamiltonian/THC dataset /Hamiltonian/THC/Luv dataset /Hamiltonian/THC/Orbitals dataset /Hamiltonian/THC/HalfTransformedMuv dataset /Hamiltonian/THC/HalfTransformedFullOrbitals dataset /Hamiltonian/THC/HalfTransformedOccOrbitals dataset /Hamiltonian/THC/dims dataset /Hamiltonian/ComplexIntegrals dataset /Hamiltonian/dims dataset /Hamiltonian/hcore dataset /Hamiltonian/Energies } }  • /Hamiltonian/THC/Luv Cholesky factorization of the $$M_{\mu\nu}$$ matrix given in (67). • /Hamiltonian/THC/Orbitals $$[M,N_\mu]$$ dimensional array of orbitals evaluated at chosen interpolating points $$\varphi_i(\mathbf{r}_\mu)$$. • /Hamiltonian/THC/HalfTransformedMuv $$[\tilde{N}_\mu,\tilde{N}_\mu]$$ dimensional array containing half-transformed $$\tilde{M}_{\mu\nu}$$. • /Hamiltonian/THC/HalfTransformedFullOrbitals $$[M,\tilde{N}_\mu]$$ dimensional array containing orbital set computed at half-transformed interpolating points $$\varphi_i(\tilde{\mathbf{r}}_\mu)$$. • /Hamiltonian/THC/HalfTransformedOccOrbitals $$[N_\alpha+N_\beta,\tilde{N}_\mu]$$ dimensional array containing half-rotated orbital set computed at half-transformed interpolating points $$\varphi_a(\tilde{\mathbf{r}}_\mu) = \sum_{p} A_{pa}^* \varphi_{p}(\tilde{\mathbf{r}}_\mu)$$, where $$\mathbf{A}$$ is the Slater-Matrix of the (currently single-determinant) trial wavefunction. • /Hamiltonian/THC/dims Descriptor array containing $$[M, N_\mu, \tilde{N}_\mu]$$. • /Hamiltonian/ComplexIntegrals Length 1 array that specifies if integrals are complex valued. 1 for complex integrals, 0 for real integrals. • /Hamiltonian/dims Descriptor array of length 8 containing $$[0,0,0,M,N_\alpha,N_\beta,0,0]$$. • /Hamiltonian/hcore Contains the $$[M,M]$$ dimensional one-body Hamiltonian matrix elements $$h_{ij}$$. • /Hamiltonian/Energies Array containing $$[E_{II}, E_{\mathrm{core}}]$$. $$E_{II}$$ should contain ion-ion repulsion energy and any additional constant terms which have to be added to the total energy (such as the electron-electron interaction Madelung contribution of $$\frac{1}{2} N \xi )$$. $$E_{\mathrm{core}}$$ is deprecated and not used. Finally, we have implemented an explicitly $$k$$-point dependent factorization for periodic systems [MZM20, MZC19] (68)$(\textbf{k}_p p \textbf{k}_r r| \textbf{k}_q q \textbf{k}_s s) = \sum_n L^{\textbf{Q},\textbf{k}}_{pr,n} {L^{\textbf{Q},\textbf{k}'}_{sq,n}}^{*}$ where $$\textbf{k}$$, $$\textbf{k}'$$ and $$\textbf{Q}$$ are vectors in the first Brillouin zone. The one-body Hamiltonian is block diagonal in $$\textbf{k}$$ and in (68) we have used momentum conservation $$(\textbf{k}_p - \textbf{k}_r + \textbf{k}_q - \textbf{k}_s) = \textbf{G}$$ with $$\textbf{G}$$ being some vector in the reciprocal lattice of the simulation cell. The convention for the Cholesky matrix $$L^{\textbf{Q},\textbf{k}}_{pr,\gamma}$$ is as follows: $$\textbf{k}_r = \textbf{k}_p - \textbf{Q}$$, so the vector $$\textbf{k}$$ labels the k-point of the first band index, $$\textit{p}$$, while the k-point vector of the second band index, $$\textit{r}$$, is given by $$\textbf{k} - \textbf{Q}$$. Electron repulsion integrals at different $$\textbf{Q}$$ vectors are zero by symmetry, resulting in a reduction in the number of required $$\mathbf{Q}$$ vectors. For certain $$\textbf{Q}$$ vectors that satisfy $$\textbf{Q} \ne -\textbf{Q}$$ (this is not satisfied at the origin and at high symmetry points on the edge of the 1BZ), we have $${L^{\textbf{Q},\textbf{k}}_{sq,\gamma}}^{*} = {L^{-\textbf{Q},\textbf{k}-\textbf{Q}}_{qs,\gamma}}$$, which requires us to store Cholesky vectors for either one of the $$(\textbf{Q},-\textbf{Q})$$ pair, but not both. In what follows let $$m_{\mathbf{k}}$$ denote the number of basis functions for basis functions of a given $$k$$-point (these can in principle differ for different $$k$$-points due to linear dependencies), $$n^{\alpha}_{\mathbf{k}}$$ the number of $$\alpha$$ electrons in a given $$k$$-point and $$n_{\mathrm{chol}}^{\mathbf{Q}_n}$$ the number of Cholesky vectors for momentum transfer $$\mathbf{Q}_n$$. The file format for this factorization is as follows (for a $$2\times2\times2$$ $$k$$-point mesh, for denser meshes generally there will be far fewer symmetry inequivalent momentum transfer vectors than there are $$k$$-points): Listing 64 Sample Dense $$k$$-point dependent Cholesky QMCPACK Hamtiltonian. $ h5dump -n afqmc.h5
HDF5 "afqmc.h5" {
FILE_CONTENTS {
group      /
group      /Hamiltonian
group      /Hamiltonian/KPFactorized
dataset    /Hamiltonian/KPFactorized/L0
dataset    /Hamiltonian/KPFactorized/L1
dataset    /Hamiltonian/KPFactorized/L2
dataset    /Hamiltonian/KPFactorized/L3
dataset    /Hamiltonian/KPFactorized/L4
dataset    /Hamiltonian/KPFactorized/L5
dataset    /Hamiltonian/KPFactorized/L6
dataset    /Hamiltonian/KPFactorized/L7
dataset    /Hamiltonian/NCholPerKP
dataset    /Hamiltonian/MinusK
dataset    /Hamiltonian/NMOPerKP
dataset    /Hamiltonian/QKTok2
dataset    /Hamiltonian/H1_kp0
dataset    /Hamiltonian/H1_kp1
dataset    /Hamiltonian/H1_kp2
dataset    /Hamiltonian/H1_kp3
dataset    /Hamiltonian/H1_kp4
dataset    /Hamiltonian/H1_kp5
dataset    /Hamiltonian/H1_kp6
dataset    /Hamiltonian/H1_kp7
dataset    /Hamiltonian/ComplexIntegrals
dataset    /Hamiltonian/KPoints
dataset    /Hamiltonian/dims
dataset    /Hamiltonian/Energies
}
}

• /Hamiltonian/KPFactorized/L[n] This series of datasets store elements of the Cholesky tensors $$L[\mathbf{Q}_n,\mathbf{k},pr,n]$$. Each data set is of dimension $$[N_k,m_{\mathbf{k}}\times m_{\mathbf{k}'},n^{\mathbf{Q}_n}_\mathrm{chol}]$$, where, again, $$k$$ is the $$k$$-point associated with basis function $$p$$, the $$k$$-point of basis function $$r$$ is defined via the mapping QKtok2.

• /Hamiltonian/NCholPerKP $$N_k$$ length array giving number of Cholesky vectors per $$k$$-point.

• /Hamiltonian/MinusK: $$N_k$$ length array mapping a $$k$$-point to its inverse: $$\mathbf{k}_i+$$MinusK[i] $$= \mathbf{0} \mod \mathbf{G}$$.

• /Hamiltonian/NMOPerKP: $$N_k$$ length array listing number of basis functions per $$k$$-point.

• /Hamiltonian/QKTok2: $$[N_k,N_k]$$ dimensional array. QKtok2[i,j] yields the $$k$$ point index satisfying $$\mathbf{k}=\mathbf{Q}_i-\mathbf{k}_j+\mathbf{G}$$.

• /Hamiltonian/dims: Descriptor array of length 8 containing $$[0,0,0,M,N_\alpha,N_\beta,0,0]$$.

• /Hamiltonian/H1_kp[n] Contains the $$[m_{\mathbf{k}_n},m_{\mathbf{k}_n}]$$ dimensional one-body Hamiltonian matrix elements $$h_{(\mathbf{k}_{n}p)(\mathbf{k}_{n}q)}$$.

• /Hamiltonian/ComplexIntegrals Length 1 array that specifies if integrals are complex valued. 1 for complex integrals, 0 for real integrals.

• /Hamiltonian/KPoints $$[N_k,3]$$ Dimensional array containing $$k$$-points used to sample Brillouin zone.

• /Hamiltonian/dims Descriptor array of length 8 containing $$[0,0,N_k,M,N_\alpha,N_\beta,0,N_\mathrm{nchol}]$$. Note that $$M$$ is the total number of basis functions, i.e. $$M=\sum_\mathbf{k} m_\mathbf{k}$$, and likewise for the number of electrons.

• /Hamiltonian/Energies Array containing $$[E_{II}, E_{\mathrm{core}}]$$. $$E_{II}$$ should contain ion-ion repulsion energy and any additional constant terms which have to be added to the total energy (such as the electron-electron interaction Madelung contribution of $$\frac{1}{2} N \xi )$$. $$E_{\mathrm{core}}$$ is deprecated and not used.

Complex integrals should be written as an array with an additional dimension, e.g., a 1D array should be written as a 2D array with array_hdf5[:,0]=real(1d_array) and array_hdf5[:,1]=imag(1d_array). The functions afqmctools.utils.misc.from_qmcpack_complex and afqmctools.utils.misc.to_qmcpack_complex can be used to transform qmcpack format to complex valued numpy arrays of the appropriate shape and vice versa.

Finally, if using external tools to generate this file format, we provide a sanity checker script in utils/afqmctools/bin/test_afqmc_input.py which will raise errors if the format does not conform to what is being used internally.

## Wavefunction File formats¶

AFQMC allows for two types of multi-determinant trial wavefunctions: non-orthogonal multi Slater determinants (NOMSD) or SHCI/CASSCF style particle-hole multi Slater determinants (PHMSD).

The file formats are described below

### NOMSD¶

h5dump -n wfn.h5

HDF5 "wfn.h5" {
FILE_CONTENTS {
group      /
group      /Wavefunction
group      /Wavefunction/NOMSD
dataset    /Wavefunction/NOMSD/Psi0_alpha
dataset    /Wavefunction/NOMSD/Psi0_beta
group      /Wavefunction/NOMSD/PsiT_0
dataset    /Wavefunction/NOMSD/PsiT_0/data_
dataset    /Wavefunction/NOMSD/PsiT_0/dims
dataset    /Wavefunction/NOMSD/PsiT_0/jdata_
dataset    /Wavefunction/NOMSD/PsiT_0/pointers_begin_
dataset    /Wavefunction/NOMSD/PsiT_0/pointers_end_
group      /Wavefunction/NOMSD/PsiT_1
dataset    /Wavefunction/NOMSD/PsiT_1/data_
dataset    /Wavefunction/NOMSD/PsiT_1/dims
dataset    /Wavefunction/NOMSD/PsiT_1/jdata_
dataset    /Wavefunction/NOMSD/PsiT_1/pointers_begin_
dataset    /Wavefunction/NOMSD/PsiT_1/pointers_end_
dataset    /Wavefunction/NOMSD/ci_coeffs
dataset    /Wavefunction/NOMSD/dims
}
}


Note that the $$\alpha$$ components of the trial wavefunction are stored under PsiT_{2n} and the $$\beta$$ components are stored under PsiT_{2n+1}.

• /Wavefunction/NOMSD/Psi0_alpha $$[M,N_\alpha]$$ dimensional array $$\alpha$$ component of initial walker wavefunction.

• /Wavefunction/NOMSD/Psi0_beta $$[M,N_\beta]$$ dimensional array for $$\beta$$ initial walker wavefunction.

• /Wavefunction/NOMSD/PsiT_{2n}/data_ Array of length $$nnz$$ containing non-zero elements of $$n$$-th $$\alpha$$ component of trial wavefunction walker wavefunction. Note the conjugate transpose of the Slater matrix is stored.

• /Wavefunction/NOMSD/PsiT_{2n}/dims Array of length 3 containing $$[M,N_{\alpha},nnz]$$ where $$nnz$$ is the number of non-zero elements of this Slater matrix

• /Wavefunction/NOMSD/PsiT_{2n}/jdata_ CSR indices array.

• /Wavefunction/NOMSD/PsiT_{2n}/pointers_begin_ CSR format begin index pointer array.

• /Wavefunction/NOMSD/PsiT_{2n}/pointers_end_ CSR format end index pointer array.

• /Wavefunction/NOMSD/ci_coeffs $$N_D$$ length array of ci coefficients. Stored as complex numbers.

• /Wavefunction/NOMSD/dims Integer array of length 5 containing $$[M,N_\alpha,N_\beta,$$ walker_type $$,N_D]$$

### PHMSD¶

h5dump -n wfn.h5

HDF5 "wfn.h5" {
FILE_CONTENTS {
group      /
group      /Wavefunction
group      /Wavefunction/PHMSD
dataset    /Wavefunction/PHMSD/Psi0_alpha
dataset    /Wavefunction/PHMSD/Psi0_beta
dataset    /Wavefunction/PHMSD/ci_coeffs
dataset    /Wavefunction/PHMSD/dims
dataset    /Wavefunction/PHMSD/occs
dataset    /Wavefunction/PHMSD/type
}
}

• /Wavefunction/NOMSD/Psi0_alpha $$[M,N_\alpha]$$ dimensional array $$\alpha$$ component of initial walker wavefunction.

• /Wavefunction/NOMSD/Psi0_beta $$[M,N_\beta]$$ dimensional array for $$\beta$$ initial walker wavefunction.

• /Wavefunction/PHMSD/ci_coeffs $$N_D$$ length array of ci coefficients. Stored as complex numbers.

• /Wavefunction/PHMSD/dims Integer array of length 5 containing $$[M,N_\alpha,N_\beta,$$ walker_type $$,N_D]$$

• /Wavefunction/PHMSD/occs Integer array of length $$(N_\alpha+N_\beta)*N_D$$ describing the determinant occupancies. For example if $$(N_\alpha=N_\beta=2)$$ and $$N_D=2$$, $$M=4$$, and if $$|\Psi_T\rangle = |0,1\rangle|0,1\rangle + |0,1\rangle|0,2\rangle>$$ then occs = $$[0, 1, 4, 5, 0, 1, 4, 6]$$. Note that $$\beta$$ occupancies are displacd by $$M$$.

• /Wavefunction/PHMSD/type integer 0/1. 1 implies trial wavefunction is written in different basis than the underlying basis used for the integrals. If so a matrix of orbital coefficients is required to be written in the NOMSD format. If 0 then assume wavefunction is in same basis as integrals.

## Current Feature Implementation Status¶

The current status of features available in QMCPACK is as follows:

Table 15 Code features available on CPU

Hamiltonian

SD

NOMSD

PHMSD

Real Build

Complex Build

Sparse

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Dense

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

No

k-point

Yes

No

No

No

Yes

THC

Yes

No

No

Yes

Yes

Table 16 Code features available on GPU

Hamiltonian

SD

NOMSD

PHMSD

Real Build

Complex Build

Sparse

No

No

No

No

No

Dense

Yes

No

No

Yes

No

k-point

Yes

No

No

No

Yes

THC

Yes

No

No

Yes

Yes

AFQMC calculations are computationally expensive and require some care to obtain reasonable performance. The following is a growing list of useful advice for new users, followed by a sample input for a large calculation.

• Generate Cholesky-decomposed integrals with external codes instead of the 2-electron integrals directly. The generation of the Cholesky factorization is faster and consumes less memory.

• Use the hybrid algorithm for walker propagation. Set steps/substeps to adequate values to reduce the number of energy evaluations. This is essential when using large multideterminant expansions.

• Adjust cutoffs in the wavefunction and propagator bloxks until desired accuracy is reached. The cost of the calculation will depend on these cutoffs.

• Adjust ncores/nWalkers to obtain better efficiency. Larger nWalkers will lead to more efficient linear algebra operations but will increase the time per step. Larger ncores will reduce the time per step but will reduce efficiency because of inefficiencies in the parallel implementation. For large calculations, values between 6–12 for both quantities should be reasonable, depending on architecture.

Listing 65 Example of sections of an AFQMC input file for a large calculation.
...

<Hamiltonian name="ham0" type="SparseGeneral" info="info0">
<parameter name="filename">fcidump.h5</parameter>
<parameter name="cutoff_1bar">1e-6</parameter>
<parameter name="cutoff_decomposition">1e-5</parameter>
</Hamiltonian>

<Wavefunction name="wfn0" type="MSD" info="info0">
<parameter name="filetype">ascii</parameter>
<parameter name="filename">wfn.dat</parameter>
</Wavefunction>

<WalkerSet name="wset0">
<parameter name="walker_type">closed</parameter>
</WalkerSet>

<Propagator name="prop0" info="info0">
<parameter name="hybrid">yes</parameter>
</Propagator>

<execute wset="wset0" ham="ham0" wfn="wfn0" prop="prop0" info="info0">
<parameter name="ncores">8</parameter>
<parameter name="timestep">0.01</parameter>
<parameter name="blocks">10000</parameter>
<parameter name="steps">10</parameter>
<parameter name="substeps">5</parameter>
<parameter name="nWalkers">8</parameter>
<parameter name="ortho">5</parameter>
</execute>


afqmc method

parameters in AFQMCInfo

Name

Datatype

Values

Default

Description

NMO

integer

$$\geq 0$$

no

Number of molecular orbitals

NAEA

integer

$$\geq 0$$

no

Number of active electrons of spin-up

NAEB

integer

$$\geq 0$$

no

Number of active electrons of spin-down

parameters in Hamiltonian

Name

Datatype

Values

Default

Description

info

argument

Name of AFQMCInfo block

filename

string

no

Name of file with the hamiltonian

filetype

string

hdf5

yes

Native HDF5-based format of QMCPACK

parameters in Wavefunction

Name

Datatype

Values

Default

Description

info

argument

name of AFQMCInfo block

type

argument

MSD, PHMSD

no

Linear combination of (assumed non-orthogonal) Slater determinants

filetype

string

ascii, hdf5

no

CI-type multi-determinant wave function

parameters in WalkerSet

Name

Datatype

Values

Default

Description

walker_type

string

collinear

yes

Request a collinear walker set.

closed

no

Request a closed shell (doubly-occupied) walker set.

parameters in Propagator

Name

Datatype

Values

Default

Description

type

argument

afqmc

afqmc

Type of propagator

info

argument

Name of AFQMCInfo block

hybrid

string

yes

Use hybrid propagation algorithm.

no

Use local energy based propagation algorithm.

parameters in execute

Name

Datatype

Values

Default

Description

wset

argument

ham

argument

wfn

argument

prop

argument

info

argument

Name of AFQMCInfo block

nWalkers

integer

$$\geq 0$$

5

Initial number of walkers per task group

timestep

real

$$> 0$$

0.01

Time step in 1/a.u.

blocks

integer

$$\geq 0$$

100

Number of blocks

step

integer

$$> 0$$

1

Number of steps within a block

substep

integer

$$> 0$$

1

Number of substeps within a step

ortho

integer

$$> 0$$

1

Number of steps between walker orthogonalization.

## AFQMCTOOLS¶

The afqmctools library found in qmcpack/utils/afqmctools provides a number of tools to interface electronic structure codes with AFQMC in QMCPACK. Currently PYSCF is the best supported package and is capable of generating both molecular and solid state input for AFQMC.

In what follows we will document the most useful routines from a user’s perspective.

afqmctools has to be in your PYTHONPATH.

### pyscf_to_afqmc.py¶

This is the main script to convert PYSCF output into QMCPACK input. The command line options are as follows:

> pyscf_to_afqmc.py -h

usage: pyscf_to_afqmc.py [-h] [-i CHK_FILE] [-o HAMIL_FILE] [-w WFN_FILE]
[-q QMC_INPUT] [-t THRESH] [-k] [--density-fit] [-a]
[-c CAS] [-d] [-n NDET_MAX] [-r] [-p]
[--low LOW_THRESH] [--high HIGH_THRESH] [--dense]
[-v]

optional arguments:
-h, --help            show this help message and exit
-i CHK_FILE, --input CHK_FILE
Input pyscf .chk file.
-o HAMIL_FILE, --output HAMIL_FILE
Output file name for QMCPACK hamiltonian.
-w WFN_FILE, --wavefunction WFN_FILE
Output file name for QMCPACK wavefunction. By default
will write to hamil_file.
-q QMC_INPUT, --qmcpack-input QMC_INPUT
Generate skeleton QMCPACK input xml file.
-t THRESH, --cholesky-threshold THRESH
Cholesky convergence threshold.
-k, --kpoint          Generate explicit kpoint dependent integrals.
--density-fit         Use density fitting integrals stored in input pyscf
chkpoint file.
-a, --ao, --ortho-ao  Transform to ortho AO basis. Default assumes we work
in MO basis
-c CAS, --cas CAS     Specify a CAS in the form of N,M.
-d, --disable-ham     Disable hamiltonian generation.
-n NDET_MAX, --num-dets NDET_MAX
Set upper limit on number of determinants to generate.
-r, --real-ham        Write integrals as real numbers.
-p, --phdf            Use parallel hdf5.
--low LOW_THRESH      Lower threshold for non-integer occupanciesto include
in multi-determinant exansion.
--high HIGH_THRESH    Upper threshold for non-integer occupanciesto include
in multi-determinant exansion.
--dense               Write dense Hamiltonian.
-v, --verbose         Verbose output.


examples on how to generate AFQMC input from PYSCF simulations are available in AFQMC Tutorials

### afqmc_to_fcidump.py¶

This script is useful for converting AFQMC hamiltonians to the FCIDUMP format.

> afqmc_to_fcidump.py

usage: afqmc_to_fcidump.py [-h] [-i INPUT_FILE] [-o OUTPUT_FILE] [-s SYMM]
[-t TOL] [-c] [--complex-paren] [-v]

optional arguments:
-h, --help            show this help message and exit
-i INPUT_FILE, --input INPUT_FILE
Input AFQMC hamiltonian file.
-o OUTPUT_FILE, --output OUTPUT_FILE
Output file for FCIDUMP.
-s SYMM, --symmetry SYMM
Symmetry of integral file (1,4,8).
-t TOL, --tol TOL     Cutoff for integrals.
-c, --complex         Whether to write integrals as complex numbers.
--complex-paren       Whether to write FORTRAN format complex numbers.
-v, --verbose         Verbose output.


### fcidump_to_afqmc.py¶

This script is useful for converting Hamiltonians in the FCIDUMP format to the AFQMC file format.

> fcidump_to_afqmc.py -h

usage: fcidump_to_afqmc.py [-h] [-i INPUT_FILE] [-o OUTPUT_FILE]
[--write-complex] [-t THRESH] [-s SYMM] [-v]

optional arguments:
-h, --help            show this help message and exit
-i INPUT_FILE, --input INPUT_FILE
Input FCIDUMP file.
-o OUTPUT_FILE, --output OUTPUT_FILE
Output file name for PAUXY data.
--write-complex       Output integrals in complex format.
-t THRESH, --cholesky-threshold THRESH
Cholesky convergence threshold.
-s SYMM, --symmetry SYMM
Symmetry of integral file (1,4,8).
-v, --verbose         Verbose output.


### Writing a Hamiltonian¶

write_qmcpack_sparse and write_qmcpack_dense can be used to write either sparse or dense qmcpack Hamiltonians.

import numpy
from afqmctools.hamiltonian.io import write_qmcpack_sparse, write_qmcpack_dense

nmo = 50
nchol = 37
nelec = (3,3)
enuc = -108.3
# hcore and eri should obey the proper symmetry in real applications
# h_ij
hcore = numpy.random.random((nmo,nmo))
# L_{(ik),n}
chol = numpy.random.random((nmo*nmo, nchol))
write_qmcpack_dense(hcore, chol, nelec, nmo, enuc,
real_chol=True,
filename='hamil_dense.h5')
write_qmcpack_sparse(hcore, chol, nelec, nmo, enuc,
real_chol=True,
filename='hamil_sparse.h5')


Note the real_chol parameter controls whether the integrals are written as real or complex numbers. Complex numbers should be used if -DENABLE_QMC_COMPLEX=1, while the dense Hamiltonian is only available for real builds.

### Writing a wavefunction¶

write_qmcpack_wfn can be used to write either NOMSD or PHMSD wavefunctions:

import numpy
from afqmctools.wavefunction.mol import write_qmcpack_wfn

# NOMSD
ndet = 100
nmo = 50
nelec = (3, 7)
wfn = numpy.array(numpy.random.random((ndet, nmo, sum(nelec))), dtype=numpy.complex128)
coeffs = numpy.array(numpy.random.random((ndet)), dtype=numpy.complex128)
uhf = True
write_qmcpack_wfn('wfn.h5', (coeffs, wfn), uhf, nelec, nmo)


By default the first term in the expansion will be used as the initial walker wavefunction. To use another wavefunction we can pass a value to the init parameter:

init = numpy.array(numpy.random.random((nmo,sum(nelec)), dtype=numpy.complex128)
write_qmcpack_wfn('wfn.h5', (coeffs, wfn), uhf, nelec, nmo, init=[init,init])


Particle-hole wavefunction (PHMSD) from SHCI or CASSCF calculations are also written using the same function:

import numpy
from afqmctools.wavefunction.mol import write_qmcpack_wfn

# PHMSD
ndet = 2
nmo = 4
nelec = (2,2)
uhf = True
# |psi_T> = 1/sqrt(2)(|0,1>|0,1> + |0,1>|0,2>)
coeffs = numpy.array([0.707,0.707], dtype=numpy.complex128)
occa = numpy.array([(0,1), (0,1)])
occb = numpy.array([(0,1), (0,2)])
write_qmcpack_wfn('wfn.h5', (coeffs, occa, occb), uhf, nelec, nmo)


### Analyzing Estimators¶

The afqmctools.analysis.average module can be used to perform simple error analysis for estimators computed with AFQMC.

Warning

Autocorrelation is not accounted for. Use with caution.

average_one_rdm

Returns P[s,i,j] = $$\langle c_{is}^{\dagger} c_{js}\rangle$$ as a (nspin, M, M) dimensional array.

average_two_rdm

Gamma[s1s2,i,k,j,l] = $$\langle c_{i}^{\dagger} c_{j}^{\dagger} c_{l} c_{k} \rangle$$. For closed shell systems, returns [(a,a,a,a),(a,a,b,b)]. For collinear systems, returns [(a,a,a,a),(a,a,b,b),(b,b,b,b)].

average_diag_two_rdm

Returns $$\langle c_{is}^+ c_{jt}^+ c_{jt} c_{is}\rangle$$ as a (2M,2M) dimensional array.

average_on_top_pdm

Returns $$n_2(\mathbf{r},\mathbf{r})$$ for a given real space grid.

average_realspace_correlations

Returns $$\langle C(\mathbf{r}_1)C(\mathbf{r}_2) \rangle$$ and $$\langle S(\mathbf{r}_1)S(\mathbf{r}_2) \rangle$$ for a given set of points in real space. $$\hat{C} = (\hat{n}_\uparrow+ \hat{n}_\downarrow)$$, $$\hat{S}=(\hat{n}_\uparrow-\hat{n}_\downarrow)$$

average_atom_correlations

Returns $$\langle C(I) \rangle$$, $$\langle S(I) \rangle$$, $$\langle C(I) C(J) \rangle$$, $$\langle S(I) S(J) \rangle$$ for a given set of atomic sites $$I,J$$. $$\hat{C} = (\hat{n}_\uparrow+ \hat{n}_\downarrow)$$, $$\hat{S}=(\hat{n}_\uparrow-\hat{n}_\downarrow)$$

average_gen_fock

Returns generalized Fock matrix $$F_{\pm}$$. The parameter fock_type is used to specify $$F_{+}$$ (fock_type='plus') or $$F_{-}$$ (fock_type='minus')

get_noons

Get natural orbital occupation numbers from one-rdm.

As an example the following will extract the back propagated one rdm for the maximum propagation time, and skip 10 blocks as the equilibration phase.

from afqmctools.analysis.average import average_one_rdm

P, Perr = average_one_rdm('qmc.s000.stat.h5', estimator='back_propagated', eqlb=10)


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